Sodium, Potassium & Chlorine

What the science says (1990–2026): Sodium, Potassium, Chloride

These citations support correction of deficiency, specified forms, and elemental amounts — the same logic used in MD's Choice formulas. They are not claims that a supplement treats disease.

Intersalt 1988–follow-ups; AHA 2023–2025 sodium guidance; Whelton potassium reviews. Potassium-rich patterns and lower excess sodium remain core blood-pressure nutrition. Potassium salt (2KCl) in a glucosamine salt is a small, specified contribution — not a salt-substitute meal plan.

These products are not intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent disease. Historic monograph text below is kept for the original library.

I. Physiological Roles

Sodium

Predominant cation in extracellular fluid.
1. Osmotic relationships, fluid volume
2. Acid-base balance, pH
Contributes to hardening of outer layers of bone
Active transport of glucose across the intestinal mucosa requires movement of Na in the same direction
Many enzyme systems function in an Na environment
Maintenance of electrical activity of body cells
Maintenance of muscle and heart contractions

Potassium

Principal intracellular electrolyte
1. Osmotic relationships, fluid volume
2. Acid-base balance, pH
Involved in cellular uptake of amino acids
Carbohydrate metabolism
1. Peripheral uptake of glucose by cells
2. Some enzymes require K for glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation
3. Secretion of insulin and glucagon
Several vital processes are controlled by release of K⁺ from cells through channels
1. Transmission of nerve impulses
2. Endocrine and exocrine secretions

Chlorine

Predominant anion in extracellular fluid
1. Osmotic relationships, fluid volume
2. Acid-base balance, pH
Maintenance of electrical homeostasis
Chloride-bicarbonate shift in O₂ and CO₂ transport by RBC (See figures 1-4.)
Activation of intestinal amalyase
Gastric juice

During Respiration, Two Reactions Occur Simultaneously in the Tissues and in the Lungs

Figure 1. O₂ and CO₂ Transport By Red Blood Cells in Tissues

In the tissues:

CO₂ is constantly being produced as the result of oxidation of food materials
CO₂ dissolves in tissue fluids and diffuses into plasma
CO₂ from tissues enters the RBC
In the RBC, CO₂ favors breakdown of oxyhemoglobin
O₂ is removed from the RBC because of decomposition of oxyhemoglobin
Reduced hemoglobin is less acidic than ocyhemoglobin and favors formation of hemoglobin-carbomino thus favoring taking on of CO₂

Figure 2. O₂ and CO₂ Transport By Red Blood Cells in Lungs

In the lungs:

CO₂ leaves the RBC and is expelled into the air
Loss of CO₂ from RBC favors formation of oxyhemoglobin
RBC accumulates O₂ as oxyhemoglobin
Oxyhemoglobin is more acidic than reduced hemoglobin and favors breakdown of hemoglobin-carbamino, thus releasing CO₂for removal from RBC

Movement of ions across RBC membranes:

RBC membrane is permeable to H₂O, CO₂, HCO₃^-, Cl and H⁺
Na⁺, K⁺ATPase tends to keep K⁺ in the cell and Na⁺ in the plasma
Cl ions diffuse into RBC's in the tissues and out of RBC's in the lungs to compensate for movement of HCO₃- ions. This is the chloride shift

Figures 3. & 4. Chloride-Bicarbonate Shift

In the Lungs

Hemoglobin-carbamino breaks down releasing CO₂
H+ ions from reduced Hb combine with HCO₃ ions
H₂CO₃ is decomposed by carbonic anhydrase, forming H₂O and CO₂
CO₂ diffuses into plasma and into the lungs where it is exhaled
As CO₂ is removed from RBC, HCO₃^- ions concentrations fall so HCO₃^- ions diffuse into plasma
Cl^- ions diffuse out of RBC to maintain ionic equilibrium
O₂ from lungs diffuses into plasma
O₂ diffuses into RBC
O₂ combines with Hb^- to form oxyhemoglobin

In the Tissues

CO₂ from oxidation of food materials
CO₂ diffuses into plasma
CO₂ diffuses from plasma into RBC
Part of the CO₂ unites with Hb to form a carbamino compound
Most of the CO₂ reacts with H₂O to form H₂CO₃
(catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase)
H₂CO₃ ionizes into H⁺ and HCO₃^- ions
As HCO₃^- ion concentration increases in RBC, HCO₃^-ions diffuse into plasma
Cl- ions diffuse into RBC to compensate for HCO₃^- ions lost
Oxyhemoglobin decomposes
O2 is liberated into the plasma and taken up by tissues

II. Maintenance of intra- and extracellular concentrations of Na⁺ and K⁺

Na is pumped out of K+ is pumped into the cell by Na, K-ATPase, and enzyme located in the cell membrane

The enzyme transfers 3 Na⁺ to the extracellular fluid for each ATP molecule hydrolyzed
This occurs in exchange for 2K⁺
Suboptimal Mg⁺² intake decreases Na, K-ATPase activity (J. Nutr. 117:2091, 1987)

Mechanism of Na, K-ATPase

III. Regulation of Na, Cl, and K

Close regulation of Na, Cl, K concentrations is necessary for health

Regulation of concentrations of these elements involves two main processes:

Control of intake
Control of loss from the body

Absorption of these elements from GI tract is essentially complete (not a control)

Conservation and excretion of excess Na, K, and Cl is controlled primarilyy by the kidney

Rennin is secreted in response to a decrease in interstitial fluid volume or blood pressure, both of which are sensitive to decreased Na
Rennin cleaves a leucine-leucine bond on a circulating a_zglobulin to liberate angiotensin I
The highly active vasopressor angiotensin II is formed from angiotensin I by angiotensin converting enzyme which is zinc dependent (Biochem. Pharmacal 20:1637, 1971; J Nutr. 116:128, 1986)
Angiotensin II stimulates adrenocortical secretion, primarilyy aldosterone
Effects of aldosterone:
1. Increased retention of Na, Cl, and H₂0
  1. Increased kidney resorption
  2. Increased intestinal absorption
  3. Reduced loss in sweat
2. Increased excretion of K
3. Decreased Na⁺ uptake by cells
Aldosterone is also stimulated by excess K intake

Excess K can be transferred from extracellular to cellular spaces where it is less harmful

IV. Dietary requirements (% of dietary DM)

	Ruminants	Nonruminants
Na	.1 - .2	.1 - .2
Cl	.1 - .15 (.28 lactating cows)	.1 - .15
K	.6 - .8 (>1 under heat stress)	.2 - .4

V. Sources of Na, Cl, and K (J Dairy Sci 69:595, 1986)

Feedstuff

Grains and Byproducts

% K

% Na

% Cl

High in Na

   Corn gluten feed
   Dried barley product
   Dried whey
   Molasses (Beet sugar)

0.64
0.53
3.16
6.07

1.05
1.24
1.54
1.48

0.25
0.161
1.10
1.64

Medium in Na

   Brewers grains
   Beet pulp
   Molasses (sugar cane)

0.09
0.20
3.84

0.23
0.21
0.22

0.17
0.04
3.10

Low in Na

   Barley
   Corn grain
   Oats
   Sorghum grain
   Wheat bran
   Soybean meal
   Cottonseed meal

0.47
0.37
0.44
0.39
1.56
2.20
1.39

0.03
0.03
0.08
0.03
0.04
0.04
0.04

0.18
0.05
0.11
0.10
0.05
0.04
0.04

Forages and roots

   Mangels (beets)
   Clover hay (alsike)
   Coastal Bermuda hay
   Alfalfa hay
   Sorghum-sudan hay
   Corn silage

2.30
2.46
1.61
2.52
1.87
0.96

0.63
0.46
0.44
0.14
0.02
0.01

1.41
0.78
0
0.38
0
0.18

VI. Dietary Cation-Anion Difference (DCAD)

Acid-base balance is affected by intake and excretion of fixed cations (Na⁺ and K⁺) and anions (Cl^-, SO₄^-)
DCAD = (meq Na + meq K) – (meq Cl + meq S)
– 100 g DM
Mongin ratio = (meq Na + meq K) – (meq Cl) is frequently used with poultry
– 100 g DM
Acid-base balance, as reflected by DCAD of Mongin ratio, appears to be related to performance
1. With dairy cows, maximal DM intake and milk yield occurred with +38 mEq/100 g DM
2. Magnitude of response differences was small, between +25 and +50
3. A Mongin ratio near +40 appears to be optimum for feed intake and growth of poultry
It may be desirable to lower DCAD to a minus value for dairy cows for a 2-3 weeks before calving to reduce incidence of milk fever

Calculation of DCAD using NRC recommended intakes of Na, K, Cl, and S in the diet

	Na	K	Cl	S
Atomic Wt (g) Equivalent wt (g) mEq MEq/g ( 1/mEq) % element in diet g element/100 g diet mEq/g element mEq element/100 g diet	22.991 22.991 0.022991 43.495 0.18 0.18 43.495 7.8	39.1 39.1 0.0391 25.575 0.9 0.9 25.575 23.0	35.457 35.457 0.035457 28.203 0.25 .025 28.203 7.05	32.066 16.033 0.016033 62.371 0.2 0.2 62.371 12.47

DCAD = (7.8 + 23.0) – (7.05 + 12.47) = 11.28

Sources of minerals to alter DCA

Cations Anions

NaHCO₃ (27.37% Na)
Na₂CO₃ (43.38% Na)
KCHO₃ (39.05% K) CaCl₂ • 2H₂O (48.23% Cl)
MgCl₂ • 6H₂O (34.88% Cl)
MgSO₄ (26.64% S)
CaSO₄ (23.55% S)
CH₄Cl (66.28% Cl)

VII. Deficiency

Symptoms of deficiency
1. Sodium
  1. Salt craving
  2. Appetite loss
  3. Decreased gain or weight loss
  4. Unthrifty appearance
  5. Reduced milk yield
2. Chlorine
  1. Appetite loss
  2. Decreased performance
  3. Lethargy
  4. Dehydration
    1. Polydipsia
    2. Polyurea
  5. Reduced respiration rate
  6. Cardiovascular depression
  7. Alkalosis
3. Potassium
  1. Appetite loss
  2. Decreased water intake and urinary output
  3. Weight loss
  4. Reduced milk yield
  5. General weakness
Factors increasing Na requirement (could contribute to development of an Na deficiency)
1. Inadequate intake
2. Excessive sweating
3. Heavy lactation
4. Excessive gastrointestinal losses during diarrhea or vomiting
5. Excessive urinary loss due to reduced Na resorption or renal insufficiency
6. Adrenocortical failure
Conditions which could contribute to Cl deficiency
1. Failure of normal kidney function to conserve body Cl
2. Excessive loss in vomiting
3. Ingestion of diuretics
4. Sequestration of HCl in a displaced abomassum (dairy cow)
5. High grain supplemented with excess NaHCO₃ (dairy cow)
  1. Concentrate feeds are usually low in Cl
  2. Feeding of high concentrates to ruminants is often accompanied by feeding of bicarbonate buffers
  3. Excess bicarbonate could increase blood bicarbonate sufficiently to produce alkalosis
6. Potassium deficiency may be caused by:
  1. Inadequate K intake
  2. High salt consumption
  3. GI losses
  4. Stressful conditions

VIII. Toxicity

Sodium and Chloride
1. Effects of large excess of salt consumed in water
  1. Hypertonicity of extracellular fluid
  2. Increase in body fluid volume
  3. Intracellular dehydration
  4. Death (concentration by kidney < concentration in fluid ingested)
2. Cattle can tolerate a comparatively high amount of salt in dry feed
Potassium
1. Ruminants can tolerate high dietary K without immediate effects as long as plasma K⁺ concentration can be kept within normal limits by excretory and other mechanisms.
  1. Cows can consume >500 g of K daily as alfalfa hay
  2. Organic acids in fresh grass reduce tolerance of cows to K
  3. High K content of early spring pasture can reduce Mg absorption and utilization
  4. High K intake can contribute to edema and milk fever in dairy cows
2. Nonruminants are likely to vomit before ingesting amounts of K too great to permit regulation by storage and excretion

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Sodium, potassium, chloride formula Na⁺, K⁺, Cl⁻

Sodium, potassium, chloride — Na⁺, K⁺, Cl⁻

Three electrolytes that keep water and charge in the right compartments. Sodium and chloride sit mostly outside cells; potassium sits mostly inside. The 2KCl in glucosamine sulphate 2KCl is a potassium-chloride stabilizer, not table salt as the “point” of the product.

Vitamin A	Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)	Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)	Vitamin B3 (Niacin)
Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid)	Vitamin B6	Vitamin B12	Vitamin C
Vitamin D	Vitamin E	Vitamin K	Biotin
Folic Acid

Calcium	Magnesium	Phosphorus	Sodium, Potassium, Chloride
Sulfur (Sulfer)

Boron	Chromium	Cobalt	Copper
Fluorine	Iodine	Iron	Manganese
Molybdenum	Nickel (Nickle)	Selenium	Silicon
Tin	Vanadium	Zinc	Ultra Trace

Aluminum	Arsenic	Cadmium	Lead
Mercury

What the science says (1990–2026): Sodium, Potassium, Chloride

Sodium, Potassium & Chlorine

IV. Dietary requirements (% of dietary DM)

Ruminants

Nonruminants

Feedstuff

Vitamins, Major Elements, Trace Elements, Toxic Elements

Vitamins

Major Elements

Trace Elements

Toxic Elements

Need help choosing a formula?

Cations	Anions
NaHCO₃ (27.37% Na) Na₂CO₃ (43.38% Na) KCHO₃ (39.05% K)	CaCl₂ • 2H₂O (48.23% Cl) MgCl₂ • 6H₂O (34.88% Cl) MgSO₄ (26.64% S) CaSO₄ (23.55% S) CH₄Cl (66.28% Cl)